A country’s sovereignty can be expressed through symbols such as its borders, authority at the borders, and the unity of its people within border areas, where the territory they inhabit belongs to the nation and they are recognized as legitimate citizens (Berg & Kuusk, 2010).

Sovereignty and territorial integrity must be preserved and maintained. Geographically, Malaysia encompasses land and rivers, maritime areas and features, airspace and outer space, the cyber domain, as well as territorial waters and sovereign rights over maritime zones. Therefore, sovereignty and territorial integrity serve as a key pillar in determining the stability and security of a country, including Malaysia.

In efforts to defend sovereignty and territorial integrity, several security issues, challenges, and threats have been identified to strengthen the protection of national interests over time (National Security Council, 2021). Developments in the cyber domain also play an important role in enhancing an advanced and effective national defense system, which in turn reinforces sovereignty and territorial integrity.

According to the Malay Literature Reference Centre (2022), sociopolitical refers to matters related to or involving social and political factors. Sociopolitical stability is Pillar 2 emphasized in the National Security Policy (DKN) 2021–2025. This pillar is particularly important in creating a peaceful and harmonious environment among Malaysians.

The government is responsible for ensuring that the Constitution of Malaysia is preserved and always held in high regard, particularly in upholding the Constitutional Monarchy, parliamentary democracy, the supremacy of the Constitution, the rule of law, the federal administrative system, and respecting and guaranteeing the fundamental rights of the people as enshrined in the Federal Constitution.

At the same time, the people also have the responsibility to support the policies implemented by the government to ensure that the nation’s peace and stability are always maintained. These principles must be respected and adhered to by all Malaysians, regardless of political beliefs, religion, ethnicity, origin, or social status. Changes in public thinking should be viewed in terms of Malaysia’s ability to uphold the fundamental values of the nation as enshrined in the Federal Constitution.

The wave of changing mindsets driven by globalization, widespread use of modern information technology, and communication devices has led to global values becoming normalized as a global culture. This has, to some extent, influenced the thinking patterns and behavior of the people, shaped by global perspectives as well as foreign influences in society. This includes the formation of political and social values that were previously unfamiliar in the Malaysian context but have now become part of current global trends.

The importance of sociopolitical stability for national security needs to be strengthened among political actors, government machinery, stakeholders, and society as a whole. Therefore, the aspect of sociopolitical stability must be given careful attention as one of the values/pillars/domains of national security.

Malaysia was formed through its own distinct and unique model in shaping nation-building, which led to the establishment of the Federal Constitution of 1957 as the country’s main legal document. Therefore, the consensus among the Malay, Bumiputera, Chinese, and Indian communities gave rise to a social contract that represents the spirit of unity in a plural society based on the Constitution (Mohd Azrone, 2018; Nazri Muslim, 2012).

In driving rapid national development, national unity—emphasizing noble values—forms the foundation for building a nation-state that involves a multi-ethnic society. However, this agenda is a challenge that must be faced not only by Malaysia but also by all independent nations.

The Malay proverb states, “water is rounded by its container, people are united by consensus.” It means that without unity and mutual agreement, society will live in a state of unrest and division. The tragic racial riots that occurred on 13 May 1969 demonstrated the breakdown of unity among communities, which in turn undermined the agreements established in the social contract.

This incident is also regarded as the only large-scale ethnic violence since Malaysia achieved independence in 1957. Therefore, it has often been used as a basis for implementing various policies and programs to minimize gaps in ethnic relations in Malaysia (Beh et al., 2021).

There is debate suggesting that the 13 May 1969 tragedy was a result of colonial rule and the colonial mindset of the past. The divide-and-rule policy introduced by the British created significant socio-economic gaps among the Malay, Bumiputera, Chinese, and Indian communities (Bernama, 2019).

Differences in economic status among ethnic groups sparked dissatisfaction within society, leading to conflicts that included questioning citizenship rights, criticizing the Malay Rulers institution, and challenging the special privileges of the Malays. As a result, the multi-ethnic society lived in a state of division, and over time, feelings of hatred toward one another began to emerge.

This dark chapter of history serves as an important lesson for all Malaysians to remain united, respect one another, and live in harmony regardless of race or ethnicity (Wan Shahrudin & Zubir, 2020; A’Azmi et al., 2019; Sinar Harian, 2019). History has also matured us so that we do not repeat the same mistakes that once tore apart societal unity in the country. Although the tragic events of 13 May 1969 occurred more than 50 years ago, the government has never taken lightly the task of addressing issues of unity in Malaysia (Nasir & Ahmad, 2009).

The core value of good governance or good governance must be supported by various parties to ensure that the sovereignty, security, and peace of the nation are always maintained. Based on The Cadbury Report (1992), governance is defined as a system in which an organization is directed and controlled. The practice of good governance has attracted the attention of the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank in planning for sustainable development (Mohd Gunawan, 2019).

Through the development of the concept of good governance, it is seen to help enhance the accountability and legitimacy of an organization (Norhaslinda, 2019), as well as integrity and transparency, thereby ensuring the sustainability of Malaysian corporate governance institutions worldwide (Nina & SM, 2019).

According to Nina and SM (2019), the financial crisis that occurred in 1997 acted as a catalyst for governance reforms in Malaysia. In general, the concept good governance has been adopted by the private sector in Malaysia through the introduction of the Malaysian Code on Corporate Governance (MCCG) in 2000 (Securities Commission, 2021).

Taking into account the implementation of the concept good corporate governance which has had a positive impact, the public sector has also begun practicing good governance through the Guidelines for Enhancing Governance in the Public Sector on 9 March 2007.

However, the need for good governance is not limited to the public and private sectors alone; the social sector Non-Government Organisations (NGO) or Non-Governmental Organizations, including the public, media, and academic groups or civil society, also play an important role in national development with the goal of improving the quality of life of the community (Mohd Sidek, 2007).

The fifth core value in the National Security Policy (DKN) refers to economic resilience. According to the DKN 2021–2025, economic resilience is defined as a country having a sustainable economy that can withstand economic threats from both domestic and international sources. Economic security is an important aspect that must be prioritized to ensure economic resilience and the well-being of the people (Engagement, Ministry of International Trade and Industry Malaysia, 2022).

In 1998, Malaysia faced an economic downturn following the financial crisis in Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand and Indonesia in 1997. At that time, the country’s economic position and the value of the Malaysian Ringgit were low, around 7%, due to a decline in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This financial crisis had a significant impact on the national economy, as Malaysia was unable to bear the high debt burden at that time (Mun, 2000).

Therefore, to avoid the negative implications and effects resulting from the global financial crisis, Malaysia must take aggressive measures to boost both export and domestic economies to ensure economic stability in the country.

In reality, not all countries are able to achieve the sustainable economic growth they desire. Various issues and challenges arise in efforts to strengthen economic stability. This is not limited to Malaysia alone; developing and developed countries alike also face challenges in consolidating their economies.

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country, also known as a plural society, and has reached over six decades of nationhood. Due to the diversity within the country, principles and elements of equality and justice across various aspects must be emphasized to maintain societal harmony and national well-being (Faiz, 2020).

Siti Noor Atikah, Ahmad Sunawari, and Yusri (2021) stated that justice is a crucial principle in creating balance, harmony, and alignment in the lives of people from diverse ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. If this element is not emphasized, the country may face various problems such as gender and racial discrimination, economic instability, and more (Sinar Harian, 2020c). In short, a democratic country must be grounded in the social justice that exists within it.

In addition to good governance and the rule of law, the aspect of social justice is also considered one of the main pillars in the formation of a secure nation.

Discussions on the aspect of social justice have often been heard and have been a topic of lively debate for centuries among people of various groups (Siti Noor Atikah, Ahmad Sunawari & Yusri, 2021); moreover, it continues to be a primary demand of society to this day.

Sustainable development is Pillar 7 in the DKN 2021–2025 and represents a global agenda that must be emphasized in assessing national security. This is because sustainable national development ensures the continuity of the country’s resources, the well-being of its people, and guarantees that resources can be enjoyed by future generations.

In driving sustainable national development, emphasis on economic growth must be balanced with social aspects and environmental stewardship. Therefore, in the context of safeguarding national security, the sustainable development agenda can become a national strength and should be regarded as complementary and given priority (Smiljanic, 2016).

Studies related to the integration of sustainable development concepts and national security began to be discussed in the literature around the year 2000, particularly involving aspects of environmental security and energy security (Smiljanic, 2016).

Jalaluddin (2015) also stated that sustainable development must take into account all aspects of development, referred to by the acronym “PEDSITELE”—politics and administration, economy, demography, socio-culture, infrastructure, technology and innovation, education, law, and environment. In other words, all crucial aspects of national development must be considered to ensure that the planned development is comprehensive, balanced, and sustainable.

Indeed, safety is one of the key pillars and forms the foundation for the success of every individual in maintaining the independence, peace, and well-being of the nation. Ensured security allows society to feel safe within the country.

The growth and proliferation of ideas, along with the global security environment, have witnessed a shift from a state-centered security approach (state centric security) to a people-centered security approach (people centric security). Emphasizing people-centered security directly allows for community involvement in planning programs to safeguard national security and protect their loved ones.

The aspects of well-being, welfare, and the rights of Malaysians are always enshrined in the Federal Constitution and must be protected and guaranteed by the government. At the same time, the rights of the nation must also be upheld and defended by the people with a strong sense of patriotism and responsibility for the country’s security and continuity.

This situation indicates that the people must also make efforts and collaborate in maintaining security, rather than placing the responsibility solely on the government. The aspect of human security is managed comprehensively through the administration of related elements across various fields, spanning sectors, administrative hierarchies, and social structures. Through efficient governance of human security, the prosperity achieved is not only enjoyed by Malaysians but also contributes to the broader advancement of human civilization (National Security Policy 2021–2025).

Pillar 9 refers to ‘International Recognition’ in the DKN 2021–2025, which states that Malaysia’s pragmatic, principled, and neutral approach has successfully ensured continuous recognition and cooperation with major regional and international powers across various aspects, including politics, economy, and security. The implementation of foreign policies guided by bilateral and multilateral diplomatic strategies further strengthens consistent collaboration. As a result, a positive image and reputation of Malaysia is established internationally, thereby ensuring ongoing recognition of the nation’s sovereignty and interests.

The process of forming Southeast Asian regionalism involved the establishment of understanding and cooperation among countries in the region, emerging during the 1950s and 1960s. The main factors driving the formation of regionalism were regional political stability, the goal of peace, resolution of regional conflicts, security guarantees, economic development, and cooperation among countries, particularly in addressing transboundary issues (Huxley, 2008).

The formation of regionalism involves the coming together of regional countries to present opinions, proposals, approaches, and positions representing the member states. In order to form such a union, mutual understanding among countries is required to enable unity, cooperation, and mutual respect among regional nations. The establishment of regional organizations plays a crucial role in resolving border conflicts, sovereignty issues, territorial intrusions, disputes over islands, and other related matters.